Mauriciu Brociner 

BROCINER

Surnames derive from one of many different origins. Sometimes there may be more than one explanation for the same name. This family name is a toponymic (derived from a geographic name of a town, city, region or country). Surnames that are based on place names do not always testify to direct origin from that place, but may indicate an indirect relation between the name-bearer or his ancestors and the place, such as birth place, temporary residence, trade, or family-relatives.

The Jewish surname Brociner, in which the German/Yiddish ending "-er" means "of/from", is associated with the Galician town of Brodsin/Bohorodczany.

Distinguished 20th century bearers of the Jewish family name Brociner include the Romanian journalists I. and Marcu Brociner.

Josef B. Brociner (1846-1918), community leader, born in Galati, Romania. He spent most of his life in Galati and was active in the fight for civil rights for Romanian Jewry during the Congress of Berlin in 1878. He was outstanding in literary polemics and sought to show that Jews in Romania should not be regarded as aliens. In 1896 Brociner was largely responsible for the plan for the reconstitution of a Romanian communal organization which had not existed since 1862. In 1901 he convened in Iasi a further conference at which the Union of Israelite Communities in Romania was founded. He was one of the first members of Hovevei Zion in Romania.

Marco Brociner (1852-1942), journalist, editor, playwright, and writer, born in Iasi, Romania. He attended school in Iasi and then studied law at the University of Leipzig and philosophy at the University of Heildelberg earning a PhD. In 1880 he returned to Romania and founded and served as editor-in-chief of the German-language periodical Bukarester Tageblatt. Brociner was expelled from Romania because of his struggle against anti-Semitism and despite the fact that his brother Mauriciu Brociner was an officer in the Romanian army and a hero of the Romanian War of Independence. He moved to Vienna, where he worked as editor of Neues Wiener Tageblatt, the Austrian government’s periodical. Marco Brociner died in Vienna under Nazi regime. His works include a number of short stories, novels and dramatic works, including Ionel Fortunat (1889), Rauschgold (1893), Junge Liebe (1902), Weihrauch (1904), Das Volk steht auf! Ein sozialer Roman (1911), Die Seelendoktorin (1914), Wenn die Jugend wüßte ... Nachdenkliche und heitere Geschichten (1924), and Der einsame Tenor (1928). Marco Brociner was the brother of Josef Brociner and Mauriciu Brociner.

Bucharest

Romanian: Bucuresti

Capital of Romania

The historic Jewish district of Bucharest used to be centered around the Choral Temple, and spread from Piata Unirii east towards Dristor. However, most of the Jewish buildings that stood there were destroyed during the 1980s in order to make way for the Bulevardul Unirii. As of 2015, there remain a handful of points of Jewish interest in Bucharest, serving the community of approximately 3,500. The Choral Temple, the Yeshua Tova Synagogue, and the Great Polish Synagogue, continue to hold services; the latter also hosts the city's Holocaust Museum. The Beit Hamidrash Synagogue, which dates back to the late 18th century, is abandoned and decaying, though the structure itself is still (barely) standing. Another abandoned synagogue whose building still stands is the Hevra Amuna (Temple of Faith).

The Jewish History Museum (Muzeul de Istorie a Evreilor din Romania) is located in what was once a synagogue called the Holy Union Temple. The synagogue building itself was constructed in 1836; it began serving as a Jewish history museum in 1978. Mozes Rosen, the chief rabbi of Romania from 1964 until his death in 1994, founded the museum and provided a number of items for its collection.

The State Jewish Theater, which is located in Bucharest, is the oldest uninterrupted Yiddish-language theater in the world. The theater features plays by Jewish playwrights, plays about Jewish topics, and Yiddish plays that run simultaneous Romanian translations through headphones. The theater is located next to the Lauder-Reut Jewish school, which has over 400 students enrolled in its kindergarten, elementary, and middle schools.

HISTORY

The Jewish community of Bucharest was formed both by Sephardic Jews who arrived from the south, chiefly from the Otooman Empire, and later by Ashkenazi Jews arriving from the north. A responsum by the rabbi of Solonika during the 16th century that mentions a Sephardic community is the first documented evidence confirming the presence of Jews in Budapest. The Jewish community began to grow and prosper; some were even the creditors of the ruling princes. This economic success, however, eventually came at a steep price (pun intended); when Prince Michael the Brave revolved against the Turks in November 1593, he ordered that his creditors be killed, among whom were a number of Jews.

Ahskenazi Jews began arriving and establishing their own community towards the middle of the 17th century, drawn there after fleeing the Khmielnitski Massacres taking place in Ukraine. Their numbers grew, and eventually the Ashkenazi community became larger than the Sephardic community. For tax purposes, the Ashkenazi and Sephardic communities were organized into a single community by the state, and were forced to pay a fixed tax to the treasury. Meanwhile, the general population, afraid of economic competition, was intensely hostile towards the Jews. In 1793 residents of the suburb Razvan petitioned Prince Alexander Moruzi to expel the Jews who had recently settled in the area and to demolish the synagogue that they had built. Though the prince ordered that the synagogue be closed, he did not remove the Jews from Razvan and, in fact, issued a decree confirming his protection of them. In 1801 there were anti-Jewish riots following blood libel accusations, and 128 Jews were killed or wounded.

In 1819 Prince Alexandru Sutu officially acknowledged both the Sephardic ("Spanish") and Ashkenazi ("Polish") communities, allowing them to operate as separate entities. This continued until 1949 when the Communist regime once again forced the two communities to join together. By 1832 there were 10 Ashkenazi and one Sephardi synagogues in Bucharest. The Great Synagogue, which was Ashkenazi, was dedicated on Rosh Hashanah, 1847.

In spite of the impressive Great Synagogue, the Ashkenazi community of Bucharest had to deal with a number of fissures and tensions during the 19th century. There were tensions between those were born in Romania, and those who immigrated to Bucharest, who were not under the same system of taxation as the native Romanians. This led the immigrants within the Jewish community, who were considered "foreign subjects" to refuse to pay the tax levied on kosher meat. This was a problem, as this tax constituted the sole income of the community council. The authorities, who were drawn into the conflict, at first upheld the traditional rights of the Jewish communal organization. However, following repeated complaints from both sides, as well as constitutional changes that took place in Romania in 1832, the community was given a new constitution that greatly curtailed its autonomy. Instead of operating autonomously, it fell under the direct authority and close supervision of the municipality. Eventually, in 1851, the Prussian and Austrian subjects (about 300 families) were officially permitted to found a separate community.

The increasing influence of the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment), also led to tensions within the Ashkenazi community. It is important to note that this conflict also reflected the economics of the community; those in favor of the Haskalah and who wanted the community to undertake more progressive reforms tended to be from the upper classes, while those who were more traditional tended to be further down the socioeconomic ladder. At that time, the Bucharest Ashkenazi community was torn by strife between the Orthodox and progressive factions. The controversy began to center around a school with a modern curriculum that opened in 1852, as well as the proposal in 1857, led by Ya'akov Lobel, to build a Choral Temple, that would incorporate modern ideas and principles into its services. The appointment of Rabbi Meir Leib Malbim in 1858 as the chief rabbi did not help quell the disputes. Malbim was a fierce and uncompromising opponent of the Reform movement, and he quickly made enemies among Bucharest's Jewish elite. The conflicts between Malbim and those who were in favor of the Reform Movement came to a head in 1862, when Malbim was arrested. He was freed only after Sir Moses Montefiore intervened, and on the condition that he leave Romania. The Choral Synagogue was completed in 1867, and became the center for the modernists of the community.

Among the most prominent spiritual and religious leaders of the community before World War I were Antoine Levy and Moritz (Meir) Beck, who were rabbis of the Choir Temple Congregation from 1867 to 1869 and 1873 to 1923, respectively. Other outstanding figures within the Choir Temple community were Iuliu Barasch and Yitzchak Leib Weinberg. Yitzchak Esiik Taubes was the rabbi of the Orthodox Congregation from 1894 until 1921. The most prominent lay leader was Adolf Stern. Moscu Asher led the Sephardic community, and Rabbi Hayim Bejarano was a noted scholar and poet. Later, the lawyer and politician Wilhelm Filderman would become the president of the Union of Romanian Jews, and Rabbi Jacob Isaac Niemirower would be the country's first chief rabbi. Filderman, in fact, would in 1941 work successfully to annul the decree forcing Jews to wear an identifying badge.

Between the two World Wars the Bucharest community grew in both numbers and importance. The Jewish population of the city, which had become the capital of Greater Romania and attracted immigrants from all parts of the country, increased from 44,000 in 1912 to 74,480 (12% of the total population) in 1930 and 95,072 in 1940. Most Jews worked as artisans, merchants, clerks, and bankers. Others were active in professions such as medicine and law. Several ironworks and foundries were established by the end of the 19th century. Major Jewish business leaders at that time included Leon Abramovici, Sigmund Prager, and Adolph Solomon.

There were a number of Jewish schools in Bucharest, particularly at the turn of the 20th century. Among the most influential was the abovementioned school established in 1852 by Yisrael Pick and Naftali Popper. These founders sought to imbue their school with the Haskalah principles that they believed in, and the school became extremely influential on Jewish education in Romania. There were also vocational institutions serving Jewish workers, including the Ciocanul (Hammer) school which trained Jewish craft workers.

Communal institutions included over 40 synagogues, two cemeteries, 19 schools, a library and museum, two hospitals, a clinic, two homes for the elderly, and two orphanages. There was also a B'nai B'rith, as long as a number of social and cultural organizations serving the community. A number of newspapers also served the community; the first Jewish newspaper, "Israelitul roman," was founded in 1855 and written in Romanian and French. Other publications included "Fraternitatea," "Revista Israelita," "Egalitatea," and "Curierul Israelit." Yiddish and Hebrew language publications included "Et LeDaber," "HaYoetz," and the Zionist newspapers "Mantuirea" and "Hasmonaea." A Yiddish theater was established in the late 1870s, and reached its peak during the interwar period. This theater would later be banned under Ion Antonescu.

Anti-Semitism continued to be a problem for the Jews of Bucharest. In 1866 the visit of Adolph Cremieux, a French lawyer who advocated for the political emancipation of the Jews, resulted in Jewish synagogues and shops being vandalized. The rise of prominence of nationalist leader Alexandru C. Cuza spurred the development of a number of anti-Semitic organizations, many of which were centered at Bucharest University.

In September 1940, with the rise of the Antonescu-Iron Guard coalition, Bucharest became one of the new regime's main centers of the anti-Jewish activities. This culminated in a pogrom during the rebellion of the Legionary Movement; 120 Jews were killed, thousands were arrested and tortured, synagogues were desecrated, and Jewish homes, shops, and community buildings were looted and destroyed.

Until the end of the Antonescu regime in August 1944, the Jews of Bucharest were subjected anti-Semitic legislation and persecution. Jews were legally downgraded to second-class citizens. They could no longer access state-funded education or health care, and their property was confiscated. These restrictions had major economic effects on the community: in 1942 only 27.2% of the city's Jewish population of about 100,000 were registered as employed, compared with 54.3% of the non-Jewish population. In September 1942 several hundred Jews were deported to Transnistria, where many eventually perished. Thousands of other Jews, particularly the young, were required to work as forced laborers.

The lack of access to education, combined with the growing poverty of the Jewish community, spurred the need for the community to greatly expand their own educational and social welfare activities. In 1943 the Jewish community ran 27 schools and 21 soup kitchens. Bucharest became the center of relief activities for Romanian Jews.

The Jews of Bucharest were saved after Antonescu was deposed on August 23, 1944 and German forces were not able to entering the city. Though Adolf Eichmann had begun making preparations to deport Romania's Jews, the fierce opposition on the part of the Romanian army, coupled with the entry of the Soviet Army on August 30, 1944, prevented any of these plans from being carried out.

After World War II, large numbers of Jewish refugees and concentration camp survivors began arriving in the city; by 1947 the Jewish population had grown to 150,000. The Communist regime, which came to power in 1947, gradually closed all Jewish national, cultural, and social institutions in Bucharest. The welfare institutions were nationalized and the schools were absorbed into the general educational network. A state Yiddish school was opened in 1949, but closed a few years later. A State Yiddish Theater was founded in 1948 and a Yiddish drama school was established in 1957. Two Jewish newspapers, the Romanian "Unirea," followed later by "Viata Novua" and the Yiddish "Ikuf Bleter" were published. Of the 44,202 Jews (3.6% of the total population) registered in the city in the 1956 census, 4,425 of them declared Yiddish to be their mother tongue. In spite of the difficulties in living under a Communist regime, Rabbi Mozes Rosen was able to successfully navigate the opaque policies of the Romanian government, allowing Bucharest to continue to serve as the center of Jewish communal and cultural life.

The rise of Nicolae Ceausescu, who was the dictator of Romania between 1965 and 1989, prompted mass emigrations to Israel. In 1969 it was estimated that there were 50,000 Jews living in Bucharest; by the turn of the 21st century there were only about 4,000.

Frankfurt am Main

Also known as Frankfurt on the Main, Frankfurt, Frankfort

A city in Hesse, Germany.

There has been a continuous Jewish presence in Frankfurt for nearly 900 years, the longest of any city in Germany. After the destruction brought on by the Holocaust, the Jewish community of Frankfurt began to be reestablished after the war. As of the 21st century, Frankfurt contains the fourth-largest Jewish community in Germany with about 7,200 Jews, nearly half of whom are immigrants from the former Soviet Union.

The Frankfurt Jewish community of the 21st century is home to two kindergartens, and the I.E Lichtigfeld School in the Philanthropin. It offers a number of social services and programs for seniors, in addition to the Senior Citizens' Home. There are regular Liberal (Reform) and Orthodox services, as well as a mikvah. The Jewish Adult Education Center (Judische Volkshochschule) offers classes, lectures, and excursions, as well as Hebrew and Yiddish language classes, for those interested in learning about Jewish history and culture. The community hosts a number of events, including the Jewish Cultural Festival. The Jewish Museum of the city of Frankfurt traces the history and development of the Jewish community of Frankfurt, and their interactions with the wider German world. There is also a kosher meat restaurant serving community members and tourists.

HISTORY

During the 12th century, Frankfurt had a flourishing, albeit small, Jewish community who were active merchants. In 1241 a riot broke out; Jewish houses were destroyed, and over three-quarters of the Jewish population (200 people at that time) were killed (West German liturgy has a special prayer recited on the Ninth of Av that commemorates the martyrs). This pogrom apparently originated in a dispute over the forced conversion of a Jew. The emperor, Frederick II, launched an official inquiry into the riot, as an infringement on his interests. At the end of the inquiry the city was granted a royal pardon—at the same time, the pardon also guaranteed the safety of the Jews of Frankfurt, and heavy penalties were imposed on those who would incite violence against the Jews.

By 1270 the city had again become a busy center of Jewish life. The community had a central synagogue (Altschul), a cemetery, a bathhouse, hospitals for locals Jews and migrants, a dance house for weddings and other social events, and educational and welfare institutions. For a long time, the prosperity of the Jewish community, and the profit that the local officials and emperor were able to gain from it, protected the Jews against persecution and anti-Semitism. This changed, however, in the wake of the Black Death; the Jews of Frankfurt fell victim to vicious attacks, similar to those experienced by Jewish communities across Europe. In 1349, shortly after Emperor Charles IV had transferred his rights over Jewish property to members of the city council in anticipation of the violence that was to come, the community was massacred; many set fire to their own homes rather than face death at the hands of an angry mob.

Jews were again allowed to live in Frankfurt beginning in 1360, though this time they had to apply individually for the privilege of living in the city; additionally, residence permits had to be renewed every year, and they came at a high monetary cost. Because of the emigration of the Jews to other areas after the pogrom of 1349, combined with the high price of returning to the city, there were only 12 tax-paying Jewish families living in Frankfurt during the first half of the 15th century. There were still issues with the surrounding non-Jewish community; the city council occasionally considered expelling the Jewish community, and beginning in the 1450s the Jews were forced to wear a distinctive badge, identifying them as Jewish.

In 1462 the Jews of Frankfurt were transferred to a specially constructed street, the Judengasse, which was delineated by walls and gates. In spite of the difficulties imposed by ghetto life, the community, in fact, became stronger and more diversified. Religious and lay leaders were elected by the Jewish taxpayers, and the continuous takkanot laid the basis for powerful, enduring, and jealously guarded, local traditions in all spheres of religious, social, and economic life. Conditions were economically favorable, and through heavy financial contributions and skillful diplomacy the Jews of Frankfurt managed to safeguard their privileges.By the end of the 16th century the Jewish community of Frankfurt had reached a peak period of prosperity.

In addition to its economic prosperity, Frankfurt also became a center of Jewish learning. Students from a number of other areas came to study at the yeshivahs of Eliezer Treves and Akiva ben Jacob Frankfurter. The Frankfurt rabbinate and rabbinical court were among the most prominent and authoritative of the religious authorities in Germany.

Economic and social tensions continued to simmer between the wealthy Jewish families of the city and the guild craftsmen and petty traders, many of whom were in debt to the Jews. These tensions eventually turned into outright violence when, in 1614, a mob led by the guild leader Vincent Fettmilch stormed the ghetto and went on a looting rampage. The Jews were expelled from the city. After the intervention of the emperor, however, Fettmilch, along with six others, were arrested and executed in Frankfurt's town square. Subsequently, the Jews were ceremoniously returned to the ghetto, and a stone eagle was mounted above the gates to the Jewish ghetto with the inscription "Protected by the Roman Imperial Majesty and the Holy Empire." These events were commemorated annually on the 20th of the Jewish month of Adar by the Frankfurt community in a holiday known as the "Purim Winz" ("Purim of Vincent").

During the 17th century the ghetto was overpopulated, leading to unhealthy conditions and resulting in a lack of significant population growth. The Jewish community was also taxed heavily, particularly during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Additionally, their terms of residence were designed to keep their numbers from growing; the Judengasse could not be expanded, and allowed for a maximum of 500 families and 12 marriage licenses annually.

In 1711 a fire broke out in the house of the chief rabbi, Naphtali b. Isaac Katz, which destroyed nearly the entire Jewish Quarter. The inhabitants of the Jewish Quarter found temporary refuge in the homes of non-Jews, but had to return to the ghetto after it had been rebuilt.

The Jewish community of Frankfurt had long been dominated by a few wealthy families, some of whom were known by signs hanging outside of their houses; one of the more famous examples is the Rothschild ("red shield") family, which had its banking center in Frankfurt until the 20th century. The impoverished majority now challenged the traditional privileges of the wealthy, and the city council was repeatedly called to act as an arbitrator between them. The community was further weakened by religious and personal disputes, such as the Eybescheutz-Emden controversy regarding Sabbateanism.

Many in Frankfurt, particularly among the wealthy, were proponents of the enlightenment, as well as of the reforms to Jewish education sought by followers of Moses Mendelssohn in Berlin. This also led to tensions within the Jewish community. Forty-nine of the community's prominent members subscribed to Mendelssoh's German translation of the Bible in 1782; the chief rabbi of Frankfurt, Phinehas Horowitz, denounced it from the pulpit. Later, in 1797, there was a proposal to create a school with an extensive secular studies curriculum, the chief rabbi, Rabbi Horowitz was once again opposed, this time imposing a ban on the project. He was supported by most of the community's leaders, in spite of the fact that many of them had private tutors to teach their children secular subjects.

Meanwhile, the French Revolution was beginning to impact the Jews of Frankfurt, both physically and when it came to the question of their emancipation. In 1796 a bombardment destroyed most of the northern part ghetto. Around that time, the community began to experience greater openness, and more rights; in 1798 the prohibition on leaving the ghetto on Sundays and holidays was ended.

With the incorporation of Frankfurt into Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, the status of the Jews began to change. Ultimately, in 1811 the ghetto was abolished and a declaration of equal rights for all citizens expressly included the Jews. This victory, however, was short-lived; with Napoleon's downfall, the senate of the new Free City attempted to abolish Jewish emancipation, and opposed efforts made by the community's delegation to the Congress of Vienna. Amidst these negotiations surrounding Jewish emancipation were the anti-Jewish Hep! Hep! Riots of 1819. In the end, the senate grated Jews civil equality, while at the same time it reinstated many former discriminatory laws against the Jews.

At the same time that Jews and non-Jews were negotiated the Jews' emancipation, religious rifts within the community widened considerably. In 1804 members of the Jewish community of Frankfurt founded the Philanthropin, a school with a markedly secular and assimilationist curriculum that was also open to non-Jewish students. This school became a major center for Reform Judaism; the school also organized Reform Jewish services for students and their parents. That same year a Jewish Freemason lodge was established in Frankfurt; most, if not all, of the community's board were also members of the lodge. Meanwhile, in 1819 the Orthodox cheders were closed by the police, and the board blocked the establishment of a school for both religious and secular studies. The yeshiva, which had about 60 students in 1793, saw a decrease in the number of students coming to learn there.

In 1843 the number of Orthodox families was estimated at less than 10% of the community. Power was clearly in the hands of Reform Jews, who demanded that "Talmudic" laws, including circumcision and messianism, be abolished. A large conference of the Reform Movement was held in Frankfurt in 1844. A leading member of this group was Abraham Geiger, a native of Frankfurt and a communal rabbi from 1863 until 1870.

The Jews of Frankfurt finally achieved emancipation in 1864. Consequently, the power of the community board weakened considerably. This left an opening for the Orthodox community, who took advantage of the opportunity and formed a religious communal organization, the Israelitische Religionsgesellschaft, and elected Samson Raphael Hirsch as their rabbi in 1851. The Rothschild family made a large donation for the founding of a new Orthodox synagogue. Ultimately in 1876, after years of feeling ignored and slighted by the community board, the Orthodox organization seceded from the community and set up a separate congregation. At that point the community board was willing to make concessions, allowing those Orthodox Jews who did not want to secede to remain within the community.

The Jewish population of Frankfurt numbered 3,298 in 1817 (7.9% of the total population), 10,009 in 1871 (11%), 21,972 in 1900 (7.5%), and 29,385 in 1925 (6.3%). The comparative wealth of the Frankfurt Jewish community is evidenced by the fact that 5,946 Jewish citizens paid 2,540,812 marks in taxes in 1900, while 34,900 non-Jews paid 3,611,815 marks.

The Jews of Frankfurt were intellectually and culturally active. Leopold Sonnenmann founded the liberal daily newspaper, "Frankfurter Zeitung," and theOrthodox Weekly "Der Israelit," which was founded in 1860, was published in Frankfurt from 1906. The establishment of the Frankfurt University in 1912 was also largely financed by the Jews of Frankfurt. Jewish communal institutions and organizations included two hospitals, three schools, a yeshiva, religious classes for students who attended city schools, an orphanage, a home for the aged, many welfare institutions, and two cemeteries. The Jews of Frankfurt were also active in Jewish causes, providing aid and financial support for Jews in Palestine. In 1920 the philosopher Franz Rosenzweig set up an institution for Jewish studies where Martin Buber, then a professor at Frankfurt University, gave popular lectures.

THE HOLOCAUST

Official Nazi actions against the Jews began on April 1, 1933 with a boycott of Jewish businesses and professionals. Shortly thereafter, on April 7th, Jewish university teachers, white-collar workers, actors, and musicians were dismissed from their jobs. Between March and October 1933 over500 Jewish stores and businesses in Frankfurt were closed. As a result of the economic war being waged against the Jews, both the general and "secessionist" Orthodox communities were faced with financial collapse. They were saved by donors within the community, and the Jewish community worked to expand existing welfareservices, establishing new agencies for economic aid, reemployment, occupational training, schooling, adult education, and emigration.

In addition to expanding their aid and welfare efforts, the Jewish community of Frankfurt responded to their increasing isolation from German society by organizing their own cultural activities. In 1933 Martin Buber revived the Judisches Lehrhaus (Jewish Academy), which had originally been established by Franz Rosensweig during the 1920s, which sponsored a number of lectures and other intellectual programs. A Jewish symphony orchestra was established, as well as theater troupes and sports programs.

On October 26, 1938 Polish Jews were expelled from Germany. Among them were 2,000 Jews from Frankfurt. Though they were allowed to return to Frankfurt a few days later, they arrived to find that their homes had been sealed by the police, and they were unable to access them. The Jewish community hosted them in school buildings and private homes.

During the Kristallnacht pogroms of Nobember 1938, the synagogues of the two Jewish communities were burned down, along with other Jewish community buildings. Jewish homes and stores were looted. The Frankfurt Yeshiva, where Herschel Grynszpan had studied before going on to assassinate the German diplomat Ernst von Rath (which became the pretext for Kristallnacht), was also destroyed. Hundreds of Jewish men were arrested and sent to the Buchenwald and Dachau concentration camps.

Members of the Orthodox Religionsgesellschaft had to once again join the general community to form a single communal organization which the Nazis called Juedische Gemeinde. In 1939 this autonomous community was forcibly merged into the state-supervised Reichvereinigung. Jewish leaders were forced to transfer communal property to municipal ownership.

Because of emigration due to the rise of Nazism and Nazi policies, the population of the Frankfurt community decreased from 26,158 in 1933 to 10,803 in June 1941. Among the Frankfurt natives who emigrated in the wake of the Nazis' rise to power was Anne Frank, who was born in Frankfurt on June 12, 1929 and who left for Amsterdam with her parents, Otto and Edith, and her sister Margot, in 1933.

Deportations of the remaining population to Lodz began on October 19, 1941 and were followed by deportations to Minsk, Riga, Theresienstadt, and other camps. In September 1943, after the large-scale deportations ceased, the Jewish population in Frankfurt totaled 602.